Thymoquinone (TQ), 2-Isopropyl-5-methyl-1, 4-benzoquinone, is one of the most active ingredients of Nigella Sativa seeds. TQ has a variety of beneficial properties including anti­oxidative and anti-inflammatory activities. Studies have provided original observations on the role of oxidative stress and inflammation in the development of renal diseases such as glomerulo­nephritis and drug-induced nephrotoxicity. The renoprotective effects of TQ have been demons­trated in animal models. Also, TQ has been used successfully in treating allergic diseases in humans. The aim of this review is to highlight the importance of reactive oxygen species in renal pathophysiology and the intriguing possibility for a role of TQ in the prevention of and/or protection from renal injury in humans.

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In most developing countries, nutritional rickets is a major health problem. The aim of this study was to explore the magnitude of nutritional rickets among Saudi infants, and the various clinical presentations, as well as to address the possible operating risk factors behind the disease. We carried out a retrospective study at King Abdulaziz Medical City-King Fahad National Guard Hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The records of Saudi infants under the age of 14 months over a 10-year period (between January 1990 and January 2000) were reviewed. Infor­mation collected included age, sex, clinical presentations, biochemical, radiological findings, infant nutrition, presence of other nutritional deficiencies and exposure to sunlight. There were 283 infants diagnosed with nutritional rickets due to Vitamin D deficiency (67% males) who were between 6 and 14 months of age. Among the total, 70% were exclusively breast-fed, and 23% were breast-fed until the age of 1 year. The most frequent clinical presentation was hypo-calcemic convulsions (34%) followed by chest infections (33%) and gastroenteritis (25%). In conclusion, nutritional rickets is still prevalent in Saudi Arabia with the primary etiology being vitamin D deficiency. Therefore we recommend that every infant, who is exclusively on breast-feeding, has routine supplement of vitamin D in the range of 200 IU/day (alone or as apart of multivitamin), started soon after birth until the time of weaning.

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The first renal transplantation in Iran was carried out in 1967. Between 1967 to 1988 almost all renal transplants were from living-related donors and the number of renal transplants performed was much lower than the national demand. In 1988, a compensated and regulated living­unrelated donor renal transplantation program was adopted. As a result, the number of renal transplants performed substantially increased such that in 1999, the renal transplant waiting list was completely eliminated. By the end of 2006, a total of 21251 renal transplants were performed (3641 from living­related, 16544 from living-unrelated and 1066 from deceased-donors). In this program, many ethical problems that were associated with paid kidney donation were prevented. Currently, Iran is the only country with no renal transplant waiting lists, and >50% of patients with end-stage renal disease have functioning grafts. In April 2000, the legislation was passed by parliament accepting brain death and allowing deceased-donor organ transplantation. By the end of 2006, 18 brain death identification units, 13 organ procurement units were organized, and a total of 1546 deceased-donor organ transplantations were performed (1066 kidney, 327 liver, 122 heart, 20 lungs, 7 pancreas-kidney, 2 heart-lungs and 2 small bowel transplants). The number of deceased-donor organ transplants have slowly but steadily increased in the country. The majority of deceased-donor kidney, liver, and pancreas transplants have been performed by transplant team of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences.

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In most Western countries, diabetic nephropathy (DN) has become the single most common condition found in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). This is to some extent due to better survival of diabetic patients with renal failure, but mostly due to the dramatic increase in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes. The majority of type 2 diabetic patients with renal failure suffer from nodular glomerulosclerosis (Kimmelstiel-Wilson); but ischemic nephropathy, irreversible acute renal failure (mostly acute on chronic) and diabetes co-existing with primary renal diseases are common as well. Classical DN evolves in a sequence of stages. After a period of glomerular hyperfiltration, increased urinary albumin excretion [microalbuminuria (MA)] i.e. 30-300 mg/day or 20 - 200 µg/minute indicates the onset of overt DN. Risk factors for development of DN are positive family history, hyperglycemia in the mother during pregnancy, high blood pressure, obesity and insulin resistance. Poor glycemic control (HbA1c) and elevated systolic blood pressure (> 135 mm Hg) interact in enhancing the risk of DN. Proteinuria and smoking are major promoters of progression. The risk of onset of microalbuminuria can be reduced by lowering of blood pressure and specifically by blockade of the renin angiotensin system (RAS). In patients with established DN, the target systolic blood pressure should be <130 mm Hg and RAS blockade is obligatory. Treating all cardiovascular risk factors is a high priority. Antihypertensive management is rendered difficult by extreme volume sensitivity, pronounced activation of the RAS and autonomic neuropathy. Cardiac events are excessively frequent, glycemic control becomes difficult and autonomic diabetic neuropathy with gastroparesis and diabetic foot are additional problems. Hemodialysis or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis should be started relatively early. In the absence of contraindications, transplantation (renal transplantation, combined kidney/pancreas transplantation or pancreas after kidney transplantation) is the treatment of choice.

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The prevalence of sleep disorders is higher in patients with kidney failure than the general population. We studied the prevalence of sleep disorders in 88 (mean age; 41.59 ± 16.3 years) chronic hemodialysis (HD) patients at the Urology and Nephrology Center, Mansoura Uni­versity, Egypt over 4-month period. The investigated sleep disorders included insomnia, restless leg syndrome (RLS), obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS), excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), narcolepsy and sleep walking, and we used a questionnaire in accordance with those of the International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group, the Berlin questionnaire, Italian version of Epworth Sleepiness Scale, International Classification of Sleep Disorders, and the specific ques­tions of Hatoum's sleep questionnaire. The prevalence of sleep disorders was 79.5% in our pa­tients, and the most common sleep abnormality was insomnia (65.9%), followed by RLS (42%), OSAS (31.8%), snoring (27.3%), EDS (27.3%), narcolepsy (15.9%), and sleep walking (3.4%). Insomnia correlated with anemia (r=0.31, P= 0.003), anxiety (r=0.279, P= 0.042), depression (r=0.298, P= 0.24) and RLS (r=0.327, P= 0.002). Also, RLS correlated with hypoalbuminemia (r=0.41, P= < 0.0001), anemia (r=0.301 and P= 0.046), hyperphosphatemia (r=0.343 and P= 0.001). EDS correlated with OSAS (r=0.5, P= < 0.0001), snoring (r=0.341, P= 0.001), and social worry (r=0.27, P= 0.011). Sleep disorders are quite common in the HD patients, especially those who are anemic and hypoalbuminemic. Assessment of sleep quality, preferably with polysomno­graphy, is necessary to confirm our results. Interventional studies for management of sleep disor­ders in HD patients are warranted.

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Tunneled, cuffed central vein catheters (TCC) are widely used for delivering hemodialysis (HD). Among the complications associated with central vein catheters in HD patients, infection is the principal cause of morbidity and mortality. The optimal strategy for management of TCC infections is unclear. This prospective study was aimed at assessing the efficacy of antibiotic-lock therapy using vancomycin and gentamycin in preventing catheter­related blood stream bacterial infection in patients on HD. A total of 63 HD patients with 81 TCC were enrolled at the time of catheter insertion. Patients were randomized into two groups: Group I (33 patients, 37 insertions) included TCC with antibiotic lock therapy, and Group II (30 patients, 44 insertions) with routine TCC management. Infection-free catheter survival of both groups was evaluated and compared at the end of the 12-month study period. A total of 57 TCC infections were encountered with an incidence rate of 8.95 infections per 1000 dialysis sessions (DS). The rate of infection was significantly lower in Group I (4.54 per 1000 DS) as compared to Group II (13.11 per 1000 DS), p < 0.001. The incidence rates of bacteremia as well as clinical sepsis were also significantly lower in Group I than in Group II (p < 0.001). There was no statistically significant difference between the rates of access site infection in the two Groups (p > 0.05). Our study suggests that antibiotic-lock therapy using a combination of vancomycin and gentamycin is useful in preventing catheter-related blood stream infection in patients on HD.

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We have investigated the influence of isolation of patients with different viral serology status on the transmission of viral hepatitis among patients on hemodialysis (HD). Our kidney center was designed to facilitate isolation of infected patients and implement infection control pre-cautions. These included separate rooms, separate entrances and exit sites, and designated HD machines for patients with hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and sero-negative patients. In addition, universal infection control polices and procedures were implemented. These included proper chemical and heat disinfection of all HD machines following each HD session. These measures were complemented with education and training of the nursing staff detailing strict adherence to all infection control policies and procedures. All of our patients and staff were vaccinated against hepatitis B. Our results showed that after four years of follow-up, there was a decrease in the annual incidence of hepatitis C seroconversion from an average of 2.4% to 0.2%. The current prevalence of hepatitis C is 29% compared to 57% at the start of the study. In addition, there have been no reported sero-conversion cases of hepatitis B. Furthermore, our data also confirmed that the prevalence of hepatitis C (as well as hepatitis B) is more frequent in HD (29%) than peritoneal dialysis (5%) units. Surgical procedures, blood transfusion, and frequent visits to different dialysis units remain the major risk factors for contracting viral hepatitis. In conclusion, these results clearly show that isolation of patients and machines, together with strict adherence to infection control policies and procedures, result in a significant decline in the incidence and prevalence and better control of viral hepatitis transmission among HD patients.

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Despite advances made in treatment, uremic pruritus remains a common and distressing symptom in patients on hemodialysis (HD). Gabapentin is an effective drug in the management of neuropathic pain. Considering that neuropathic pain and pruritus share similar pathogenic mechanisms, we conducted this study to evaluate the efficacy of gabapentin in controlling uremic itch. In a double blind, placebo-controlled trial, 34 adult patients on maintenance HD were enrolled. The patients were assigned to receive four weeks of treatment with either gabapentin (400 mg) or placebo administered twice weekly after HD sessions. Pruritus scores were measured using a visual analogue scale and compared between the two groups.After four weeks of treatment, the mean decrease in pruritus score in gabapentin and placebo groups was 6.7 ± 2.6 and 1.5 ± 1.8, respectively (p<0.001). None of the patients was forced to drop out of the study due to side effects of the treatment. Our study suggests that gabapentin is a safe and effective treatment for uremic itch.

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Candiduria is a common nosocomial infection afflicting the urinary tract. This review is aimed at providing an updated summary of the problem in hospitalized adult patients. A review of English Medline literature published between Jan 1970 until June 2007 was performed. Reviews, clinical trials and case-controlled studies in adult patients were included. Risk factors for candiduria included urinary indwelling catheters, use of antibiotics, elderly age, underlying genitourinary tract abnormality, previous surgery and presence of diabetes mellitus. Presence of candiduria may represent only colonization and there are no consistent diagnostic criteria to define significant infection. Candiduria may not be associated with candidemia and most cases are asymptomatic. Asymptomatic candiduria is usually benign, and does not require local or systemic antifungal therapy. Physicians need to confirm the infection by a second sterile urine sample, adopt non-pharmacologic interventions and modify risk factors. Mortality rate can be high particularly in debilitated patients and awareness to validate candiduria is necessary to stratify treatment according to patient status. Appropriate use of anti fungal drugs, when indicated, should not replace correction of the underlying risk factors. Treatment of symptomatic candiduria is less controversial and easier.

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The prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in hemodialysis patients (HD) has decreased significantly during the past decade in most HD units. To evaluate the cause(s) of this reduction, we studied the HCV antibodies measurements in 1006 HD patients in the Province of Mazandaran, Iran, from January 2001 to December 2006. In December 2001, the prevalence of antibody to HCV was 18%, whereas by December 2006, it decreased to12%. Causes implicated in the reduction of prevalence of HCV infection in HD patients include a low percentage of new anti-HCV+ patients, a decrease in the conversion rate in HD patients, and more strict infection control measures in the dialysis units.

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The nephrotoxic and extra-renal adverse effects associated with calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) therapies appear to have a negative impact on long-term graft survival. Several CNI minimization protocols have been recently studied. These protocols involve either early CNI avoidance or CNI withdrawal. CNI withdrawal strategies are associated with a significant improvement in renal function and graft survival on both a short and long-term basis. Delayed and progressive withdrawal appears to be safer. Maintaining a high mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) or sirolimus (SIR) exposure minimizes the risk of acute rejection. CNI avoidance regimens using maintenance mono-therapy or combination therapies without induction appear to be immunologically risky and unsafe. In contrast, the combination of SIR + MMF with induction therapy reduces markedly the incidence of acute rejection and chronic allograft nephropathy (CAN). Two year patient and graft survival levels were comparable. CAN as well as the incidence and the risk for cancer in addition to blood pressure profiles and uric acid levels were overall lower in the SIR-based treatment. In contrast, hyperlipidemia, delayed wound healing, lymphocele, arthralgias, thrombocytopenia and study protocol deviations were reported more frequently in the SIR-maintenance protocols. Longer­term follow-ups are definitely needed to determine whether these avoidance strategies will result in a significant improvement in long-term patient and graft survival. Outcome differences among various protocols within the same CNI elimination strategy are probably related to study design, patient selection criteria, immunosuppression monitoring methods, indications for graft biopsies, environmental, and both genetic and ethnic factors. All monitoring techniques are unreliable short of a graft biopsy. Preliminary results on drug lymphocyte binding may offer new guidelines for tailoring immunosuppression. Whether these protocols based on SIR or SIR + MMF can also be extended to high risk patients is currently unknown. These encouraging results allow speculation but with caution that the use of the combination of non-nephrotoxic immunosuppression such as SIR and MMF, might change dramatically the natural course of CAN and may influence long-term patient survival.

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This study was conducted to assess the effect of oral calcitriol on glucose metabolism in patients on hemodialysis (HD). A total of 27 patients on HD at the Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran, none of whom had received calcitriol or had history of diabetes, were selected. The patients were randomly divided into two groups; Group I: patients who received oral calcitriol for eight weeks and, Group II: patients who received placebo. In all cases, levels of fasting glucose, insulin, lipid profile, calcium, phosphorous, parathormone (PTH), HbA1C and blood sugar after administration of 75 grams of glucose, insulin resistance and beta cell function were measured, before and after the treatment period. The two sets of results were then compared with one another. In Group l patients, the levels of the parameters studied before and after the study period were as follows: blood sugar after 75 grams of glucose (88.67 ± 8.68 versus 99.83 ± 34.42 mg/dL, p = 0.045), HOMA-IR (2.05 ± 1.42 versus 2.42 ± 1.33, p = 0.035), HbA1C (5.99 ± 1.00 versus 6.14 ± 1.19, p = < 0.001), total cholesterol (153.3 ± 43.80 mg/dL versus 157.0 ± 52.62, p = 0.037) and triglycerides (175.30 ± 99.65 versus 214.9 ± 117.7 mg/dL, p = 0.036). Thus, there was a significant decrease after the study period. In Group II, fasting blood sugar (110.7 ± 26.12 versus 81.14 ± 13.31 mg/dL, p = 0.002), HbA1C (6.99 ± 1.44 versus 6.17 ± 1.66, p = 0.004) and HOMA-IR (5.85 ± 5.11 versus 3.20 ± 2.39, p = 0.036) significantly increased and beta cell function significantly decreased (149.5 ± 90.57 versus 355.7 ± 299.3, p = 0.032) after the study period. In conclusion, our results show that vitamin D has a significant influence on glucose metabolism. Similar studies on larger sample size are required to confirm this observation.

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Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is an extremely distressing problem experienced by patients on dialysis; the prevalence appears to be greater than in the general population, with a wide variation from 6.6% to 80%. The diagnosis of RLS is a clinical one, and its definition has been clarified and standardized by internationally recognized diagnostic criteria, published in 1995 by the International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group (IRLSSG). This study was designed to find out the prevalence of RLS in Saudi patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) on maintenance dialysis. This is a cross sectional study carried out between May and Sept 2007 at two centers, King Abdulaziz Medical City-King Fahad National Guard Hospital (KAMC-KFNGH), Riyadh and King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre (KFHRC), Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Data were gathered on 227 Saudi patients on chronic maintenance hemodialysis or chronic peritoneal dialysis. The prevalence of RLS was measured using IRLSSG's RLS Questionnaire (RLSQ). Potential risk factors for RLS including other sleep disorders, underlying cause of chronic renal failure, duration on dialysis, dialysis shift, biochemical tests and demographic data were also evaluated. The overall prevalence of RLS was 50.22% including 53.7% males and 46.3% females. Their mean age was 55.7 ± 17.2 years and mean duration on dialysis 40.4 ± 37.8 months. Significant predictors of RLS were history of diabetes mellitus (DM), coffee intake, afternoon dialysis, gender and type of dialysis (P= 0.03, 0.01, < 0.001, 0.05 and 0.009 respectively). Patients with RLS were found to be at increased risk of having insomnia and excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) (P= < 0.001 and 0.001, respectively). Our study suggests that RLS is a very common problem in dialysis population and was significantly associated with other sleep disorders, particularly insomnia, and EDS. Optimal care of dialysis patient should include particular attention to the diagnosis and management of sleep disorders

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End-stage renal disease patients on chronic hemodialysis (HD) patients are at risk for both hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, and they may coexist. To de­termine the prevalence and clinical impact of HBV and HCV infection, we studied poly chain reaction (PCR) and reverse transcription (RT)-PCR on the blood samples of 90 HD patients in Kerman, Iran. ELISA test was used to detect anti-HBc, anti-HBs and HBsAg. We found that 30 out of 90 (33.3%) patients were PCR-RT-PCR positive for HCV-RNA. No HBV-DNA (0%) was detected through the PCR study in both positive and negative HCV-RNA patient groups. Though none of the samples was HBsAg positive, 10 (33.3%) HCV-RNA positive patients were anti-HBc positive, and 12 (40.7%) were anti-HBs positive. We conclude that prevalence of hepatitis C infection is high in HD patients in our region, but not associated with active HBV infection.

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The aim of this study was to document vascular complications that occurred fol­lowing cadaveric and living donor kidney transplants in order to assess the overall incidence of these complications at our center as well as to identify possible risk factors. In a retrospective cohort study, 1500 consecutive renal transplant recipients who received a living or cadaveric donor kidney between December 1988 and July 2006 were evaluated. The study was performed at the Nemazee Hospital, Shiraz, Iran. The assessment of the anatomy and number of renal arteries as well as the incidence of vascular complications was made by color doppler ultrasonography, angiography, and/or surgical exploration. Clinically apparent vascular complications were seen in 8.86% of all study patients (n = 133) with the most frequent being hemorrhage (n = 91; 6.1%) followed by allo­graft renal artery stenosis (n = 26; 1.7%), renal artery thrombosis (n = 9; 0.6%), and renal vein thrombosis (n = 7; 0.5%). Vascular complications were more frequent in recipients of cadaveric organs than recipients of allografts from living donors (12.5% vs. 7.97%; P= 0.017). The occurrence of vascular complications was significantly more frequent among recipients of renal allografts with multiple arteries when compared with recipients of kidneys with single artery (12.3% vs. 8.2%; P= 0.033). The same was true to venous complications as well (25.4% vs. 8.2%; P< 0.001). Our study shows that vascular complications were more frequent in allografts with multiple renal blood vessels. Also, the complications were much less frequent in recipients of living donor transplants.

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Prevalence of HCV seropositivity among the hemodialysis population in Sudan is estimated to be around 34%. We undertook a cross sectional study in two major HD centers in Khartoum, Sudan for the prevalence of HCV seropositivity among the hemodialysis patients, during January to -March 2005. Testing for HCV antibodies was performed using 3 ^rd generation enzyme linked immunoadsorption assay (ELISA). A total of 236 patients were included in the study: 218 adults and 18 children. The mean age was 43.6 ± 15.6 years, and the majority was males: 71.6%. The cause of renal failure was unknown in 168 patients (71.2%). The mean HD duration was 36.6 ± 35.1 months. Prevalence of HCV seropositivity was 23.7%. Among 170 patients who were previously HCV seronegative, 30 (17.1%) seroconverted to positive in one year (estimated incidence: 63 new cases per year). HCV seropositivity was associated with longer duration of dialysis (p < 0.00001), previous surgery (p= 0.026), age of over 30 and years (p = 0.008), and dialysis in multiple centers (p= 0.005). We conclude that although HCV seropositivity in our study was lower than previously reported, it was still high among HD patients in Sudan. Nosocomial transmission of HCV among hemodialysis patients is a contributing factor.

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Calciphylaxis is an infrequent but severe entity found in chronic dialysis patients. Its clinical pattern consists of tissue ischemia with itchy and painful subcutaneous nodules and plaques, most often located on the abdomen, buttocks, thighs and/or legs. These injuries evolve to extensive superficial necrosis of the skin overlying the panniculitis, with ulceration, overinfection and consequent sepsis. Current treatment modalities used to counteract this pathology are not entirely effective. A new treatment reported for calciphylaxis, is the use of intravenous sodium thiosulfate. This inorganic salt is already used in the treatment of intoxication caused by cyanide, in patients with calcific nephrolithiasis and tumoral calcinosis, with very good and safe results. We herewith report a case of calciphylaxis that was cured using intravenous sodium thiosulphate treatment.

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We performed this study to assess whether low dose spironolactone could be admi­nistered in hemodialysis (HD) patients with moderate to severe heart failure to improve cardio­vascular function and reduce hospitalization without inducing hyperkalemia. We enrolled 16 chro­nic HD patients with moderate to severe heart failure and left ventricle ejection fraction :5 45%. In a double blinded randomized placebo controlled study, one group of 8 patients received 25 mg of spi­ronolactone after each dialysis session within six months, and the rest received a placebo. Echo­cardiography was performed on all the patients to assess ejection fraction and left ventricular mass during 12 hours after completion of hemodialysis at the beginning and the end of study. Serum potassium was measured predialysis every 4 weeks. The mean ejection fraction increased signi­ficantly more in spironolactone group during the study period than in the placebo group (6.2 ± 1.64 vs. 0.83 ± 4.9, P= 0.046). The mean left ventricular mass decreased in the spironolactone group, but increased significantly in the placebo group during the period (-8.4 ± 4.72 vs. 3 ± 7.97. 95%, P= 0.021). The incidence of hyperkalemia was not significantly increased in the study or controlled groups. In conclusion, we found in this study that administration of spironolactone in chronic HD patients with moderate to severe heart failure substantially improved their cardiac function and decreases left ventricular mass without development of significant hyperkalemia.

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Thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) is a rare but devastating disorder; it involves small vessels and is characterized by intravascular thrombi of aggregated platelets leading to thrombocytopenia and variable degrees of organ ischemia and anemia, which is due to erythrocyte fragmentation in microcirculation. Childhood cases with predominant renal involvement are referred as the hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), and adults with major central neurological involvement are labeled as thrombotic thrombocytopenia purpura (TTP). Endothelial damage due to toxins and/or lack of defense against complement activation have a central role. Recent discovery of the von Willebrand Factor cleaving protease (ADAMTS 13) has offered new insight into the pathogenesis of TMA. TMA is also a well-recognized serious complication of renal transplantation. Clinical features of intravascular hemolysis are not always found. It may occur as de novo or recurrent and the majority of de novo cases are related to cyclosporin therapy. Viral infections, severe renal ischemia and acute vascular rejection are less frequent causes. Recurrence is negligible in diarrhea-associated HUS in childhood, but non-diarrheal HUS recurs in majority of adults following renal transplantation. Renal transplantation is contraindicated in familial/relapsing recurrent forms of HUS.

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Human T lymphocytotropic virus HTLV is a virus from retroviridae family, and more than 20 million people are infected with this virus worldwide. It can cause leukemia/lymphoma in adults, tropical spastic paralysis, HTLV associated myelopathy, spastic paraparesis, tropical myelo­pathy (HAM/TSP), and some other nervous system diseases. It is transmitted by means of blood products via blood transfusion. In Iran, except the Great Khorasan region, none of blood products undergo screening for HTLV. Immunodeficiency in HD patients, results in in-creased risk of infection. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of anti-HTLV-I/II antibody among hemo­dialysis patients and healthy blood donors in Urmia, Iran. A cross-sectional study was conducted from April 2005 to January 2006 among healthy blood donors and in 2006 among hemodialysis patients. The serum of 2046 blood donors and 95 Hemodialysis patients was checked with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for anti HTLV-I/II, and positive cases were confirmed by western blot. Three seropositive cases among 95 hemodialysis patients were detected, and only one of them was confirmed by western blot. Of the healthy blood donors 1910 (93.4%) were males and 136 (6.6%) were females. Serum of 1997 (97.6%) subjects was negative, and 49 (2.6%) cases were positive for HTLV by ELISA. Among the positive cases western blot confirmed only 7 (14.3%) persons as HTLV positive, 37 (75.5%) as negative, and 5 (10.2%) as indeterminate. Among the 7 positive cases 6 (85.6%) were infected with HTLV-I, and only one (14.3%) with HTLV-I /II infection. Total Serologic prevalence of HTLV in healthy blood donors was 0.34%. We conclude that such high serologic prevalence in the population of blood donors in Urmia city, suggests the high probability of transmission through blood transfusion, and therefore screening of blood donors for human T­lymphocyte virus is essential in this region. HD patients should be screened for HTLV and positive subjects should be isolated.

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Thalassemia is a systematic disease in which the renal involvement has not yet been scrupulously studied. In a cross-sectional study, the renal findings of 50 cases of thalassemia intermedia (group 1) were compared to 58 patients with thalassemia major (group 2). Blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, uric acid, calcium, phosphorus, urinalysis, and ultrasonographical findings were evaluated. Mean age was 18 ± 3.0 in group 1 and 17 ± 3.5 years in group 2. The mean of serum ferritin levels was 871 ± 81.8 ng/ml in group 1 vs. 3503 ± 201 ng/ml in thalassemia major (p < 0.05). Ninety-two percent of the patients in group 1 were on hydroxyurea at the time of evaluation. Serum uric acid was significantly higher in group 1 than group 2 patients (5.74 ± 2.95 vs. 4.12 ± 0.9 mg/dl, p < 0.05). Microscopic hematuria (red blood cell in high power field of urine microscopy > 5) was observed among 19 children (17.6%); 17 of them were in group 1. In contrast, children with thalassemia major had significantly higher serum creatinine (0.89 ± 0.18 vs. 0.59 ± 0.37 mg/dl, p < 0.05) and blood urea nitrogen values (12.14 ± 5.58 vs. 13.85 ± 3.54 mg/dl, p < 0.05). We conclude that significant renal involvement is not a frequent complication in children and young adults suffering from thalassemia. Hyperuricemia and microscopic hematuria are more common in thalassemia intermedia than thalassemia major. Microscopic hematuria in thalassemia intermedia might be related to either hypercalciuria or hyperuricosuria.

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To determine the prevalence of concomitant microvascular and macrovascular complica­tions of diabetic nephropathy we retrospectively reviewed the medical records of all 1,952 type 2 dia­betic patients followed-up at Security Forces Hospital, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia from January 1989 to December 2004. There were 626 (32.1%) patients (294 (47%) were males) who developed diabetic nephropathy. Their mean age was 66.9 ± 11.4 years, mean duration of diabetes was 15.4 ± 7.5 years, mean age at the onset of nephropathy was 61.5 ± 12.4 years, and mean duration of nephropathy was 3.9 ± 3.8 years. Concomitant diabetic complications included cataract (38.2%), acute coronary syndrome (36.1%), peripheral neuropathy (24.9%), myocardial infarction (24.1%), background retinopathy (22.4%), stroke (17.6%), proliferative retinopathy (11.7%), foot infection (7.3%), limb amputation (3.7%) and blindness (3%). Hypertension was documented in 577 (92.2%) patients, dyslipidemia in 266 (42.5%) and mortality from all causes in 86 (13.7%). There were 148 (23.6%) patients with one complication, 81 (12.9%) with two, 83 (13.3%) with three, and 61 (9.7%) with four or more. Dete­rioration of glomerular filtration rate was observed in 464 (74%) patients and doubling of serum creatinine in 250 (39.9%), while 95 (15.2%) developed end-stage renal disease (ESRD) at the end of study and 79 (12.6%) required dialysis. Complications were significantly more prevalent among males with greater number reaching ESRD level than females (P< 0.05). Relative risks of developing com­plications were significant after the onset of nephropathy; ACS (1.41), MI (1.49), stroke (1.48), diabetic foot (1.6), amputation (1.58) and death (1.93). We conclude that complications of diabetes are aggre­ssive and progressive including high prevalence of diabetic nephropathy. Careful monitoring and proper institution of management protocols should be implemented to identify diabetic patients at high risk for complications and mitigate progression into ESRD.

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We conducted this retrospective study to identify the most appropriate oral antibiotic as empiric treatment of urinary tract infection according to resistance patterns of uropathogens among children treated at Queen Alia Military Hospital and Prince A`isha Bent Al-Hussein Military Center from January 2006 to April 2007. Urine cultures for isolated microorganism and their anti­biotic susceptibility in patients below the age of 14 years treated as outpatient were reviewed. Out of 3820 cultures, 529 isolates were found, E coli was the most frequent organism. Resistance to Ampicillin, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim (TMP-SMZ) was common, and multidrug-resistant (MDR) among E. coli isolates was 59.9%. Knowledge of patterns of resistance at each institution helps in deciding empiric therapy for UTI. Pretreatment urine culture should be performed and followed up for the continuation of the treatment.

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The exact prevalence of chronic kidney disease in India is not clear in the absence of regular national registry data and provided only by small observational series or rely on reports from personal experience, but the quality of data is quiet uneven. There are only three population based studies in India commenting on the magnitude of chronic kidney disease. In a prevention program started at community level in Chennai, the reported prevalence is 0.86% in the project population and 1.39% in the control region. The second study is based on Delhi involving 4972 urban patients. The prevalence of chronic renal failure (defined as serum creatinine more than 1.8 mg/dL) to be 0.79 % or 7852 per million/population. The third study perhaps the only longitudinal study to identify the incidence of end stage renal disease is based on 572,029 subjects residing in city of Bhopal suggests that the average crude and age adjusted incidence rates of end stage renal disease were 151 and 232 per million population respectively. The resources and skill for taking care of this large case load, both in terms of personal and health care infrastructure do not exist currently and would need to be created. To tackle the problem of limited access to renal replacement therapy, an important method would be to try and reduce the incidence of end stage renal disease and the need of renal replacement therapy by preventive measures. It is clear that treatment of chronic kidney disease and its advanced stage end stage renal disease is expensive and beyond the reach of average Indian. Thus it is crucial that prevention of chronic kidney disease has to be the goal of medical fraternity, government of India and the general public. This article suggests a series of primary, secondary and tertiary preventive measures for prevention of chronic kidney disease. Clearly there are already many effective and attractive interventions for the treatment and prevention of chronic kidney disease exist and many more surely be developed.

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